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Their unique taste receptors and lack of teeth allow them to chow down on peppers that would make humans wince in pain.

Birds are immune to hot peppers on a molecular and evolutionary level. They cannot sense spiciness because their capsaicin receptor (TRPV1) is not sensitive to capsaicin, and birds have evolved without the need for teeth, which mammals use to grind down seeds, releasing their heat.

Peppers are a recommended part of a bird’s diet. This might make you wonder how birds can eat the hottest pepper when it would cause you so much pain. How can the bird not react to the spiciest peppers when you break out in sweat anytime you eat a chili pepper? Read on to find out why birds are immune to the spiciness of peppers and how that is beneficial both to the birds and the peppers they eat.

The Scientific Reason Why Birds Aren't Affected By Hot Peppers

The way most mammals are affected by spiciness is because of how their capsaicin receptors act, which is why birds’ capsaicin receptors are the main reason why they are not negatively affected by capsaicin. The spiciness is not a flavor. Capsaicin itself has no smell or taste. What some people may describe as a spicy flavor is their capsaicin receptors sending pain signals to their brain. When capsaicin interacts with the receptors in mammals, they will send chemical signals to the brain, signifying pain. The receptors in birds do not react this way.

Birds have evolved with no teeth, which makes them a perfect candidate for feeding. Plants often develop alongside the species that eat them. The plants that thrive the best throughout evolution do so by having the best reproduction systems. Peppers evolved to be eaten by birds, who possess no teeth. Because of this, the hot peppers can spread through their seeds, being passed whole through a bird’s digestive system.

Through both a molecular and an evolutionary method, birds’ immunity to hot peppers has benefited both plants and animals. The close relationship between birds and peppers has allowed them to thrive. The spicy peppers can spread far and wide. The birds can eat as many peppers as they want without any heartburn!

Benefits of Birds’ Immunity to Capsaicin

The fact that birds are not affected by hot peppers the way other species are is beneficial to peppers and birds. The evolution of birds isn’t the only evolution that allows this healthy symbiotic relationship. Hot peppers have also evolved to be easily eaten by birds instead of other animals.

Plenty of mammals will eat sweet and mild peppers regularly, but due to their regular capsaicin receptors, they will steer clear of the hottest peppers. This leaves plenty for the birds. After eating these peppers, birds will travel quite far and pass the seeds to new areas. Because of this behavior, hot peppers have evolved to be spread and grow in abundance without losing seeds to mammals’ digestive systems.

Birds have also been benefiting from this relationship for a long time. Hot peppers are very healthy for a bird’s diet. Hot peppers have been shown to help with immunity and contain antioxidants. Spicy peppers are also high in vitamin A. For birds, this means healthier, more vibrant feathers.

Better for Birds and the World

Birds have been proven to be immune to capsaicin. This allows birds to reap all the nutritional benefits of peppers. Also, the seeds pass through their digestion and can grow new plants wherever the birds go.

Orange You Glad: Carrots Come in a Rainbow of Colors

Most carrots that you find at food markets are orange, but there are many differently colored carrots available. These carrots have a variety of health benefits, flavors, and scents.

While most carrots you find in supermarkets are orange, wild and early cultivated carrots come in various colors. Many people believe carrots are orange due to selective breeding in the Netherlands asXXXXX. However, this is false. Records show that carrots were either yellow or purple until the 1500s. Then, orange carrots appeared in 16th century Italian and Spanish artworks. In short, the orange carrot occurred naturally.

Carrot colors are determined by compounds called carotenoids, which are antioxidants that carry different pigments and have numerous effects on our bodies. For example, certain carotenoids (lutein and zeaxanthin) are full of oxygen, promote ocular health, and reduce the risk of heart disease. Lycopene promotes heart health and reduces the risk of certain cancers.

Differently colored carrots also have different flavors. Depending on the color, carrots can taste sweet, peppery, flowery, or even bitter. Naturally occurring sugars combine with terpenoids (flavor compounds) to create these different flavors.

Orange carrots are the most common carrots. They have a high beta-carotene level and a flavor we’ve come to know and expect. They also come in many different shapes and sizes, adapt to many soils, and can sometimes mature quickly.

White carrots originally came from Iran and Afghanistan. While not as sweet or flavorful as many other carrots, they are packed with fiber and are very crunchy. Unfortunately, they do not have many other nutritional benefits.

Yellow carrots are juicy, crunchy, and fragrant. They contain high levels of lutein, which is related to beta-carotene and vitamin A and found in different brassicas, plus kiwis, grapes, orange fruits, and squashes. When cooked with fat, lutein has a better chance of being absorbed into the body.

Red carrots are high in lycopene, rich in flavor, and taste slightly sweeter than orange carrots. Purple carrots are extremely sweet and have an earthy flavor similar to parsnips. They also lose their pigment when cooked and will bleed into other ingredients. These types of carrots are rich in anthocyanins, an antioxidant found in most purple, black, and blue fruits or vegetables. They also have red, white, or orange cores, which are rich in anthocyanin, lycopene, and alpha-carotene.

You can also find black carrots. Interestingly, these carrots are not actually black, just very dark purple. They are packed with even more anthocyanins than the lighter purple varieties, offering many antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obesity benefits, as well as preventing numerous cardiovascular diseases. These types of carrots are also spicy and earthy.

Various factors influence the color of a carrot. For example, temperatures higher than 70 degrees and lower than 60 degrees Fahrenheit will reduce carrot coloration. Carrots grown in the spring and summer will be more vibrant than those in the autumn and winter. In addition, carrots grown in soils rich in organic matter or sandy soils will be a more vibrant color than those grown in less-ideal soil conditions. Interestingly, excessive water decreases the carrot’s color, while the number of daylight hours will reduce color as well (which is why the winter carrots are less vibrant).

How Did Carnivorous Plants Evolve to Eat Meat?

Most plants might seem harmless, but some have developed a taste for meat. Carnivorous plants aren’t big enough to eat humans, but insects and small animals aren’t so lucky. Find out more about why some plants are meat-eaters and how they evolved to be that way.

There are a total of 600 different carnivorous plant species. While they might have evolved separately, these plants shared a common issue: The environments where they were growing lacked sufficient nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil. In order to compensate, these plants evolved to catch and digest prey.

For centuries, people have been enamored with carnivorous plants. After all, plants aren’t meant to be predators, but that doesn’t change the fact that plants all over the world have adapted to become meat eaters. In fact, you can find them on every continent except Antarctica.

While many of them have different adaptations and appearances, they all share three common attributes:

They capture and kill prey
They have a mechanism to facilitate the digestion of the prey
They derive significant benefit from the nutrients they digest

When compared to your typical plant, it might be difficult to see the similarities since carnivorous plants have such specialized parts. So how did they actually come into being?

Carnivorous Plant Beginning

Seventy million years ago, a genetic anomaly turned your regular plant into a carnivore. While in many cases this genetic mutation might have died out, in the case of carnivorous plants it helped them survive and propagate. The early ancestors of carnivorous plants likely lived in the same environment you’ll find today’s meat-eating plants — waterlogged areas such as swamps, bogs, marshlands, and so on. These areas tend to be acidic and low in oxygen, making it difficult for soil to maintain a rich supply of nitrogen — a key nutrient for plants.

Not all waterways are good for carnivorous plants. While they might get their nutrients from animals, they still need the sun for photosynthesis. The trap leaves might be effective at capturing prey, but they’re not great for photosynthesis. In order to balance this out, carnivorous plants tend only to grow in sunny wetlands where there aren’t any large tree canopies or tall grass blocking sunlight. So if you’re looking for a carnivorous plant, focus on wet areas that get a lot of sunlight.

Why wetlands? The same reason why the plants need to have a lot of direct sunlight. The plant’s root system evolved to absorb nutrients from the prey they capture. While most carnivorous plants still have a root system, it’s poorly developed and inefficient. Similar to the leaf tradeoff, the root tradeoff means these plants can only grow in areas with plentiful water since they don’t have a system capable of storing or transporting water efficiently.Why wetlands? The same reason why the plants need to have a lot of direct sunlight. The plant’s root system evolved to absorb nutrients from the prey they capture. While most carnivorous plants still have a root system, it’s poorly developed and inefficient. Similar to the leaf tradeoff, the root tradeoff means these plants can only grow in areas with plentiful water since they don’t have a system capable of storing or transporting water efficiently.

Of course, not all plants that live in the same conditions as carnivorous ones develop a taste for meat. In fact, the most successful wetland plants are from the Typha genus, more commonly known as cattails. These plants are so successful in wetland conditions that they often outcompete other plants thanks to their spongy stems and extensive root system that sucks up whatever nutrients are in the soil.

It’s perhaps because of this very competition that some plants had to find other ways to get nutrients. Not only does the surrounding soil have pitiful amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus, but other plants were just better adapted at absorbing them. In nature, it’s evolve or die, and luckily a mutation made it possible for carnivorous plants to be competitive in this challenging environment.

Steps to Become a Carnivorous Plant

It didn’t happen overnight. In fact, it probably took tens of millions of years for carnivorous plants to perfect this system to obtain as many nutrients from their prey as possible. Scientists recently studied different carnivorous plants (Venus flytrap, pitcher plants, and sundews) and were able to figure out some common steps that needed to happen in order to for these plants to become carnivorous:

Generate a second copy of its DNA. By doing so, the plants were able to still produce regular leaves and roots, but the second pair of genes for these parts were able to serve other functions. Some leaf genes developed into genes for traps while some root genes specialized in finding new ways to absorb nutrients
Start receiving new nutrients from the prey that would fall into the traps. At this point, traditional roots and leaves were no longer necessary and many genes that were not directly tied to carnivorous nutrition disappeared. Most aquatic carnivorous species have a weakly developed root system only meant to keep them anchored to the ground.
The final transformation comes when the plants undergo evolutionary changes to match their environment. The roots and leaves are now trap-specific. What was once the root system now creates enzymes needed to digest and absorb nutrients from prey. Leaves became traps to ensnare the prey. Some plants took a more passive approach and turned their leaves into enticing and slippery landscapes like the pitcher plant. Others, like the Venus flytrap, use modified leaves with sensitive hairs that snap shut on prey when their hairs are triggered multiple times.

Types of Carnivorous Plants

Since plants are not capable of chasing down their prey, they have to come up with elaborate traps to lure their prey. There are five varieties of trapping devices:

Snap – As the name suggests, this trap will close around the prey when it triggers motion sensitive hairs on the leaves of the plant. The most recognizable example of this is the Venus flytrap.

Pitfalls – The leaves of these plants form a long and deep vessel filled with digestive enzymes where the prey falls. The opening of the trap is enticing, but also slippery, ensuring the prey will fall while the sticky enzymes at the bottom prevent the prey from escaping. Pitcher plants are the perfect example of these types of traps.
Flypaper – Similar to actual flypaper that you use, these plants emit a sticky glue (and digestive juices) on their leaves to catch their prey. Some plants, like sundews, can even move to envelop their prey further. Sound familiar? Recent genetic research has shown the Venus flytrap evolved from sundew-like ancestors.
Bladder – this underwater trap is used only by bladderworts. The plant uses a bladder to pump out water, which creates a vacuum within. When a potential meal triggers the bristles on the surface of the bladder, a trap door opens, sucking everything inside before closing again.
Lobster pot – Only found in the carnivorous corkscrew plants, these traps use a technique many fishermen use: Create a trap with an easy entrance, but no visible exit. When small microfauna enter the hollow stalk of the plant, it quickly turns into a trap as the stalk splits and spirals into a confusing maze. The spirals forming the lower portions are also lined with inward-facing hair so whatever is trapped inside cannot reverse direction and go out the same way they came in.

Carnivorous plants might seem like a mystery to many, but their adaptations occurred because they would not have survived otherwise. Many of these plants continue to change and adapt to fit the environment around them.

Not all carnivorous plants absorb creatures directly. In fact, some have evolved to attract creatures in the hopes of collecting their excrement. An example of this is the giant montane pitcher plant. It entices mountain tree shrews with its sweet nectar. While snacking, the shrew often defecates inside the pitcher plant to mark its territory. The feces collects at the bottom of the plant and when it rains, the nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) get flushed into the plant.

More Carnivorous Plants in the Future?

Will carnivorous plants continue to grow and evolve? While humans today might not be around to see it, chances are in another 10 million years or so these carnivorous plants might evolve further. Who knows. Maybe one day they will start chasing down their prey!

Have You Seen Grass Taller Than 100 Feet?

Although people might assume that bamboo is a tree due to its impressive height and sturdiness, that is not the case. Bamboo is actually a type of grass — the tallest of any grass species.

Bamboo is a term that refers to a wide range of evergreen perennial plants. All of these plants belong to the Bambusoideae subfamily group and have lived on Earth for millions of years. These plants feature straight stems with hollow centers that grow at an incredible rate. Some species of bamboo expand so rapidly that they can add an inch or more of growth in a single day.

That rapid growth rate, along with adaptability to many different growing conditions, allows bamboo plants to reach amazing sizes. For example, the largest of all bamboo species is called giant bamboo, or Dendrocalamus giganteus, which can grow to 80 to 100 feet in the right conditions. However, there are other species of bamboo that also go by the common name giant bamboo and can show heights that are nearly as impressive. Members of the Bambusa genus, including Bambusa balcooa and Bambusa oldhamii, can reach more than 60 feet tall.

Another interesting feature of bamboo is that it is a very useful resource. Although bamboo stems grow quite quickly, they are also incredibly strong. The strength of bamboo, in relation to its relatively low weight, makes it a fantastic building material. It also has other uses, such as in the creation of textiles, weapons, and more.

Since bamboo can essentially take the place of timber and because of its massive size of up to 100 feet tall, many people make the mistake of believing that bamboo is a tree or some form of shrub species. However, bamboo does not belong to either of those groups.

Technically, bamboo is a grass species. It belongs to the family Poaceae, which includes all grass varieties, and shares the same anatomy as other grasses despite having a larger size. As is the case with most other types of grass, the center of a bamboo stem is mainly hollow. Bamboo also does not produce the type of xylem that is present in other kinds of plants.

The growth habit of bamboo further contributes to its classification as a grass plant. These species typically display one of two growth patterns. One group of bamboo species spreads by clumping. These plants expand horizontally at a gradual rate by spreading rhizomes. Other bamboo species spread by running. These plants are far more aggressive as their rhizomes spread over much larger areas. In either case, bamboo plants prove not to be single-stem trees. Instead, they grow in spreading clusters of stems much like ornamental and other wild grasses.

Bamboo also flowers like other grasses. However, the flowering habits of these plants are quite unique. Many bamboo plants are unpredictable and will only flower after several decades. Other species tend to decline and die after they bloom. Bamboo also undergoes mass flowering, which is when the plants produce copious amounts of blooms during a single period to increase the odds of successful pollination.

There are other grasses that can reach amazing heights, but none can compare to bamboo. For instance, this is Napier grass, which belongs to the Pennisetum genus. This grass species sends out leaves that are several feet long. Those leaves can contribute to an overall height of about 15 feet or more. And while 15 feet is an impressive height for a grass, it is not close to the heights that bamboo can reach.

Other grasses can be tall as well but fall even shorter than Napier grass compared to bamboo. Panicum virgatum is a species that we call switchgrass and can reach 7 feet tall. Another tall grass species is Calamagrostis x acutiflora “Karl Foerster,” which reaches about 6 feet tall.

Still, bamboo stands above the rest of the members of its plant family as the only grass species in the world that can consistently reach 100 feet tall. Since bamboo is so tall and strong, it is no wonder why so many people are confused about its classification. However, if you study bamboo species, you’ll find that they all belong to the grass family and share the common traits that are present among grass plants. The major difference is size, as no other grass comes close to bamboo in height.

Meet the Largest Plant on Earth

Many plants vie for the title of largest on Earth, and deciding which is the winner comes down to whether you are considering single-stem plants, clonal populations, or both.

When talking about “the largest tree in the world,” the answer is always giant sequoia, a member of the conifer family. It is not the tallest tree — the coast redwood is a bit taller — but giant sequoias have a significantly larger diameter. The largest one, “General Sherman,” has an estimated volume of 52,500 cubic feet, weighs 4.2 million pounds, and is 275 tall and 35 feet in diameter. An absolute giant! It is 35% larger than its rival, a coast redwood named “Grogan’s Fault.” The advantage is obvious.

The comparison is based on one primrose: between single-stemmed trees. But if we introduce a huge monster to this competition, clonal colonies, the result of the game will be very different.

Clonal colonies have an entirely different anatomy than single-stem plants. These plants come in a multitude of varieties, each of which appears to be a system of multiple plants at first. For instance, clonal tree species can sprout multiple trunks from different ground locations. While these plants will appear as a group of distinct individuals, they all share identical DNA and connect to one another using the same root system.

There is a clonal species with the scientific name of Populus tremuloides. A grove of this species, known commonly as quaking aspen that lives in Utah, is the largest plant in the world on another track. This grove, which has the nickname Pando, comprises over 40,000 trunks, and covers an area of more than 100 acres. The estimated weight of “Pando” is about 13 million pounds, more than three times heavier than “General Sherman.”

However, there are a few other noteworthy contenders who come quite close to earning recognition as the largest plant on Earth. Another clonal species, giant marine plant, grows in the Mediterranean region and may be as much as five miles long. The issue is no one has yet proven that this plant is entirely connected along that span, which is why we cannot call it the largest. However, samples taken from this plant have proven to share identical DNA thus far. Additionally, this plant, Posidonia oceanica, is the frontrunner for the oldest living organism in the world today.

Knowing what plant is the largest on earth is a matter of semantics. By sheer volume, the giant sequoia known as “General Sherman” is the largest. However, if you are interested in the tallest tree, that title goes to the Hyperion Tree, which is a coast redwood. Still, the conversations become more complete as soon as you are aware of clonal colonies. With those in consideration, a grove of quaking aspen stands out as the largest organism in the world. So if you are thinking about which plant is truly the largest of any other, know that the answer comes down to the definition you use.

How Long Can a Plant Survive?

Certain types of trees can live for thousands of years, but it can be challenging to determine the precise age of a tree. In most cases we have to rely on observing current growth rates to estimate an age.

Some trees or tree groups can survive for thousands of years. The oldest known individual tree, “The Sisters,” is located in Lebanon and has an estimated age of around 6,000 years. The oldest colony of trees, which may be as many as 130,000 years old, is an unnamed group of critically endangered King’s lomatia trees located in Tasmania.

Since many plants can outlive humans many times over, and we are always curious about the most extreme example of any phenomenon, it is no surprise that we are interested in quantifying which plant is the oldest and what the limits of a plant’s lifespan are. To that end, researchers have attempted to verify the age of various plants to determine what types of plants can live the longest and also identify individual specimens that may be especially old. Of all plant varieties, certain species of trees have the longest lifespans.

There are complications when estimating the lifespan of a plant, however. First off, it is difficult to measure the age of a tree. The age of an individual plant is generally calculated based on observed growth rates in our current environment, which may not be the same as they were previously when conditions might have been much different.

It’s also necessary to distinguish what counts as an individual plant for the purposes of measuring age. While this may seem straightforward at first, it can actually be complex because some plants reproduce asexually or are part of a clonal colony. A clonal colony refers to a group of individual plants that grow together, and originate from a single ancestor. Since they are reproducing asexually from the same source, all individuals in a clonal colony are genetically identical.

Clonal colonies are quite common among plant species, although they may appear to be individual plants to the casual observer since the colony is underground. Clonal colonies pose a challenge when trying to identify the age of a plant since the colony can continue to live and reproduce for much longer than any single individual plant within the colony.

Finally, there are a few species of plant that can undergo long periods of inactive dormancy after which they can return to normal growth given the right conditions. It is unclear whether or not we should consider dormancy periods to be part of an individual specimen’s lifespan when comparing with other plants that are consistently alive by the normal definition.

Oldest Individual Trees

The oldest known individual tree is called “The Sisters” or “Sisters Olive Trees of Noah.” This Olea europaea (olive) tree is located in Bchaaleh, Lebanon, and has an estimated age of 6,000 years. This tree still produces olives.

“Prometheus” is the oldest tree with a verified age. It was cut down in 1964, at which time it was measured to be at least 4,900 years old. This tree is located in Wheeler Park, Nevada, in the United States, and it is a Great Basin bristlecone pine.

The third-oldest tree is another Great Basin bristlecone pine called “Methuselah.” Located in the White Mountains in California, this is the oldest living tree with a confirmed age in the world. The precise location of this tree is kept a secret by the United States Forest Service.

Oldest Clonal Colonies

As mentioned above, clonal trees as a group can outlive any individual tree since the organism keeps renewing itself with new growth while old parts die off. Therefore, all ages of clonal colonies are estimated based on currently observable growth rates and the size of the colony.

Tasmania’s Southwest National Park is home to a clonal colony of Lomatia tasmanica (King’s lomatia) with an estimated age anywhere from 43,600–130,000 years old. This species of trees is endangered, with only this one colony known to exist in the world.

“Pando” is a colony of Quaking aspens located in Fishlake National Forest in Utah, United States. The colony is spread across approximately 107 acres and is estimated to be between 10,000 and 80,000 years old. There are around 47,000 individuals making up this colony.

The “Jurupa Oak,” or “Hurungna Oak” colony is approximately 13,000 years old and can be found in the Jurupa Mountains in California, United States. The colony includes approximately 70 clusters of genetically identical stems. The species is Quercus palmeri (Palmer’s oak).

Certain types of trees can live for thousands of years, but it can be challenging to understand the precise age of a tree because measuring it is not an exact science. In most cases we have to rely on observing current growth rates to estimate an age. It’s also important to distinguish between individual specimens and clonal colonies of trees, as the latter can survive much longer.

Is partially rotten fruit still edible?

Many people simply cut off the rotten parts of the fruits and eat the rest. Seems prudent, because eating the rotten parts is actually pretty unsafe.

Oops, part of my honey pomelo is spoiled! Should I eat the rest or discard it?

The answer is simple, don’t eat it! Rotting happens mainly because of microbes. They are keen on the carbohydrates and moisture in fruits; as one can easily tell, fruits are sweet and juicy, providing energy for the breeding of microorganisms. There are several hundreds of bacteria, fungi and viruses that can cause fruit rotting, many of them are poisonous or bad for your health.

Normally, fully-ripened fruits deteriorate most quickly, because when a fruit is fully-ripened, its complex carbohydrates such as starch are hydrolyzed rapidly into free sugars accompanied by decreasing acidity and firmness. With more sugar, lower acidity and softer peel, rotting happens at a much higher speed.

Two types of ripening

Fruits are divided into two types: for the first type there is a peak of post-harvest metabolism called “respiratory climacteric” with consequent post-ripening, while fruits that have no respiratory climacteric do not experience post-ripening.

A large proportion of fruits belong to the climacteric group: pear-like fruits (apple, hawthorn, quince, etc.), peach-like fruits (apricot, plum, prune, etc.), melon, avocado, mango, banana, kiwi, pitaya, papaya, durian, cherry tomato, persimmon/kaki, pomegranate, etc. The non-climacteric fruits are: berries, cherries, citrus (orange, lemon, mandarin, grapefruit, pomelo, etc.), pineapple, litchi, coconut, loquat, and so on.

Climacteric fruits and non-climacteric fruits ripen at different paces. The respiratory climacteric process is triggered by ethylene. Ethylene is a plant hormone and the threshold is 0.1ppm. Both endogenous and exogenous ethylenes are valid. Ethylene drives climacteric fruits to their full maturity within 1-2 days, which are then sweet, tender, aromatic and juicy. Maturity of non-climacteric fruits remains more or less the same as when they were harvested, i.e. they hardly become sweeter during storage.

Venting: the key to storage

To store fruits properly, venting is crucial. Venting not only reduces relative humidity, thus repressing microbial activity, but also prevents ethylene accumulation.

Please remember that a fully ripened climacteric fruit will emit ethylene; ethylene accumulation will obviously reduce life of other fruits wrapped within the same bag or container. Therefore, when a climacteric fruit becomes aromatic (an easy sign for optimum maturity), eat it. Collect climacteric fruits into separate bags instead of one bag.

For non-climacteric fruits, since they almost reach optimum maturity when harvested, you’d better buy only a small amount. Refrigerating (around 39°F), of course, protects most fruits. But there are several exceptions: cool places around 50 °F are suitable for bananas, mango, pitaya, papaya and pineapple.

Among climacteric fruits, apples are an exception for their exceptionally long shelf life (up to one month; varying among varieties) and a wise choice for bulk purchase at an economical price. That’s due to the wax outside its dense peel and the fresh-keeping agents on its surface.

Beware of those rotting fruits

When a fruit is rotting and a mildew spot is found, that fungal hypha and its byproducts have already reached every corner of this fruit regardless if we see them or not. Always remember that by-products of microbes can be poisonous and the hazard is unforeseen. For instance, patulin and ochratoxin A are two widely existent toxins in rotten fruits that originate from many pathogens. Patulin is poisonous to the human stomach and gut, while ochratoxin A is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IRAC) into Group 2B for its toxicity. Here we also draw your attention to the notorious aflatoxin: aflatoxin can be found in spoiled shell-fruits and dry fruits and it is a Group 1 cancerogen; a mere 20 mg dose is fatal.

Rotting fruits are undoubtedly NOT edible. Once a fruit becomes slimy, mushy, smelly, discolored or moldy, please discard it with no hesitation and clean its stain it left in your kitchen if there is any, to avoid contaminating other fruits. Physical damage itself is harmless but it will rot very quickly; therefore we’d better deal with damaged fruits in time. Rotting fruits also can NOT be used for compost.

If you just happen to have excess fruits, there are several ways to deal with them: add them to your smoothie/baking/jam recipe; make dry fruits (either sun-dried or freeze-dried); freeze them for summer; or simply share with neighbors.

How pasture affects the quality of milk?

When you purchase steaks, you may already notice the phrases “grass-fed” and “grain-fed” and how the two taste differently. Just as in the saying “you are what you eat”, not only does cow feed change the taste of steak, it also changes the taste and value of the cow’s milk.

You may be wondering how milk exhibits different flavors. The secret is fat. The milk fat consists of a mixture of more than 100 fatty acids. Different fatty acids contained in milk fat, especially those short-chain and middle-chain ones, create a full body of taste. Three simple factors are related to milk flavor and additional nutrition: feeding, season and processing technique.

The first factor is how cows are fed. In the modern dairy industry, cows are fed mainly by fresh grass, silage, hay, grain, soybean meal and other concentrates; either in an organic way or not. Cows grazing freely on well-grown pasture give the best milk, because both grass-feeding and good aeration in the stall increase the pleasant volatile fatty acids in milk that enhance flavor.

Free grazing will largely reduce the cost on cow stalls, making the milk more competitive on the market. Furthermore, commercial pasture is highly productive. If properly managed, grass-legume sward can yield up to 1200 ton dry matter per hectare every year. Therefore, grazing is beneficial for farmers economically.

Grasses, like perennial ryegrass and tall fescue, together with legumes, like white clover and alfalfa, can create a grass-legume sward that offers cows a palatable and easily digestible meal. Herbs like ribwort plantain and chicory have more micronutrients such as zinc and manganese; they can also optimize the digestibility of grass-legume mixture, hence balancing the cows’ feed.

As a result, pasture milk has more short-chain fatty acids and tastes more refined than milk from cows fed by concentrates. Cows fed by pasture also give softer butter. Organic farming is a good choice because of the lack of antibiotics used on the cows, but it has little contribution to the flavor and key nutrition.

The second factor is season. If you visit meadows during late spring and summer, you would find all sorts of attractive flowers, which means grasses are in the reproductive stages with preferentially more crude protein, more crude fat, less fiber etc.. Higher quality of food will make the cows produce milk of higher quality. More precisely, they produce milk with high-quality fats.

Don’t worry about the word “fat”, most fats contained in milk are considered “good fat”. For example, the lauric acid digested from milk fat is a positive factor for your leptin, which can really make you slim. The conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is another cutting-edge natural anti-cancer factor and only can be found in milk; other short-chain and middle-chain fatty acids in milk fat are friendly to the intestinal tract too.

Milk gathered during May and June has significantly more CLA, more lauric acid and more lactose which make it sweeter. Moreover, stronger ultraviolet light during May and July also improves secondary metabolism products in grasses thus broadening the spectrum of milk flavor elements.

The last factor is the processing technique. If you are a gourmet, you may also already find that milk tastes differently between brands. Micro-filter technique is the champion for retaining bio-active nutrition, freshness as well as sweetness. Pasteurized milk tasted lighter and softer than UHT milk. UHT milk feels thick and strong, and sometimes has an unpleasant “dull” mouthfeel.

Finally, all of these factors will be reflected by its price. Milk with a higher price has the advantage of better freshness and mouthfeel. Now, you may conclude that buying “Micro-filtered June pasture milk” will give you the best flavor. But please remember that all milk contains nearly the same proportion of protein and calcium, which give the fundamental nutritional value of milk. Just forget those advertisements. It’s fine to decide which milk to buy based simply on your budget.

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