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The Spectacular History of Europe’s Oldest Botanical Garden
The Spectacular History of Europe’s Oldest Botanical Garden
There may be many botanical gardens that are impressively old, but only one is the oldest in Europe: the Orto Botanico di Pisa, established around 1543.
Today, botanical gardens are widespread throughout Europe and the world. But at one point, there were no botanical gardens in existence. To go from zero botanical gardens to the countless gardens we have currently, one garden had to be the first.
The oldest botanical garden in Europe is called the Orto Botanico di Pisa. However, the original year in which this garden opened is the subject of debate. While some sources state that the garden opened in 1544, others claim that it opened as early as 1543. Regardless of which date is correct, Orto Botanico di Pisa maintains its title as the oldest botanical garden in Europe.
A doctor and botanist from Imola named Luca Ghini was the first to call for the creation of this garden. With the help of Cosimo I de’ Medici Orto, Ghini was able to create this botanical garden along the Arno River. However, that original location did not last long.
Just 20 years after this garden’s inception, Ghini’s pupil, Andrea Cesalpino, changed its location. Then, in 1591, the garden moved again as Giuseppe Casabona relocated it to its current location near the Piazza Dei Miracoli.
The original purpose of the Orto Botanico di Pisa was to serve as a place to study all aspects of plant life. In fact, Orto Botanico di Pisa has held a strong association with university education since its inception. Today, the University of Pisa carries on this tradition as it is the institution responsible for maintaining the garden’s many features.
The Orto Botanico di Pisa includes seven distinct sections, each of which plays on a different botanical theme. Those seven sections include the botanical school, the cedar garden, the myrtle garden, the greenhouse area, the Del Gratta Garden, the Piazzale Arcangeli, and an area called the new garden. Each of those sections includes numerous scientific displays and collections, including unique plant specimens, endangered plant species, plant-related artwork, rare plant seeds, and some informative horticultural journals.
Not only is the Orto Botanico di Pisa famous for its historical components, but it also boasts some impressive statistics. For example, it includes more than 3,000 plant species, including some ancient ginkgo trees that have grown on the premises since 1787. The garden is also home to several ponds, fountains, and a library. Another noteworthy aspect of this garden is the iron-framed hothouse, which is one of the oldest remaining structures of its kind in all of Italy.
The massive quantity of plants and insightful horticultural knowledge is the product of several hundred years of work. Over the past few centuries, those who run the Orto Botanico di Pisa have continued to cultivate and collect numerous fascinating plant species. That effort has allowed the Orto Botanico di Pisa to remain a prominent source of botanical wisdom to this day.
However, while Orto Botanico di Pisa is the oldest botanical garden in Europe, it is not without some stiff competition. As a matter of fact, many people make the mistake of believing that another Italian botanical garden is the oldest. The Botanical Garden of Padua is also quite old, having been established in 1545, but falls just short of the Orto Botanico di Pisa by one or two years.
Despite not being the oldest botanical garden, the Botanical Garden of Padua remains impressive as it has undergone minimal changes to its layout during its long history. If you visit this garden today, you’ll find that it has the same original layout that existed in 1545. That layout consists of a circular central garden area with a ring of water surrounding it.
Like the Orto Botanico di Pisa, the Botanical Garden of Padua continues to serve its original purpose as a place of education and scientific research. Unlike the Orto Botanico di Pisa, the Botanical Garden of Padua is in its original location, which is why many consider it to be the oldest of all botanical gardens. What’s even more remarkable about this garden is its collection of plant species. Currently, the Botanical Garden of Padua is home to more than 6,000 species, which is about twice as many as the Orto Botanico di Pisa.
While there are many botanical gardens in Europe, none can claim to come before the Orto Botanico di Pisa. Since 1543, or 1544 depending on the source, this garden has been a consistent place of learning for all who are interested in the captivating world of plant life.
How to Use Plants to Make Traditional Weapons?
How to Use Plants to Make Traditional Weapons?
Weapons have been a part of human history since ancient times and have altered the course of civilization through their effectiveness in battle and hunting. But before the advent of modern technology, people needed to rely on a multitude of plant species to create such useful weapons.
Throughout history, humans have found countless uses for plants to aid in their survival and support the growth of their societies. Those plant uses took many forms, one of which was to create effective weaponry that would be useful in battle or while hunting. The tradition of using plants as raw materials for weapon creation is common throughout the world. There are numerous plant species that have contributed to this effort.
For example, the plant known as Viburnum dentatum is not only an incredibly attractive flowering shrub, it also proved quite useful to indigenous North American hunters and warriors. This plant goes by the common name arrowwood for a good reason. This plant grows multiple stems from its base, each of which is perfectly straight. Since those stems had minimal curves and bends, many Native American tribes found them to be ideal for creating arrows.
Arrows are not a weapon exclusive to North America. In fact, many cultures have relied on arrows for hunting and fighting for centuries. Throughout that long history of arrow use, people found ways to make their arrows more potent by adding poison to them. There are several common sources for arrow poison, many of which come from plants. For instance, the plant known as Chondrodendron tomentosum, which grows in Central and South America, contains poisonous alkaloids, which can affect the nervous system and cause paralysis. Many other plants have a similar toxic quality, such as Strychnos toxifera, Strychnos guianensis, and Sciadotenia toxifera. We can refer to these plants collectively as curare, a general term for any plant that contains toxic alkaloids suitable for poison arrows.
While arrows are an amazingly efficient projectile, they are essentially useless without a bow to launch them. Fortunately for traditional weapon makers, it’s possible to use plants to make powerful bows as well. The most famous example of using plants to make bows came from medieval Europe. During that period, the English were known for making longbows from the wood of Taxus baccata, or English yew. The heartwood and sapwood of the yew tree can withstand significant compression and tension, making them the best option for bow-making at the time. That single development of creating longbows from yew trees gave the English a significant advantage during many historic battles against opponents who made bows from less-suitable woods.
Another intriguing use of plants as a form of weaponry took place in Scotland. A Scottish legend suggests that the Scottish thistle plant once acted as an effective form of barbed wire. The story goes that a group of Vikings planned to attack a group of Scots while they were sleeping at night. However, before the ambush could occur, one of the Vikings stepped on the pointed thorns of a thistle plant and shouted out in pain. The sound of his voice awakened the Scots and saved them from the attack. Based on that legend and other uses, the thistle plant remains a prominent symbol of Scotland to this day.
Many plant-based weaponry developments occurred in Asia. In that region, the bamboo plant was particularly useful for making a wide range of weapons. Bamboo is incredibly versatile while also having an impressive amount of strength and durability. Those qualities made this plant the perfect option for bows, arrows, darts, blowguns, staffs, and much more. Not only was bamboo strong, but it was also widely available and was a material that people could carve easily, making it very popular for many uses, including in weapon making.
Australia is also home to an impressive history of weapon creation. One of the most well-known weapons to emerge from that continent is the boomerang, which Aboriginal people used for hunting and combat. The wood those people used to make boomerangs would vary based on the region in which they lived. In central Australia, the mulga plant, also known as Acacia aneura, was the hardwood of choice for this purpose. In other areas, sheoak, or Allocasuarina, was the raw material of choice for making boomerangs.
Humanity has a long tradition of creating and improving its weapons to become more effective while hunting or fighting on the battlefield. Many of the most reliable traditional weapons came from the raw materials plants produce. Those plants are all unique and have different origins, but each one holds an important place in human history and military development.
Do Figs Really Bear Fruit Without Blooming?
Do Figs Really Bear Fruit Without Blooming?
If you’ve ever watched a fig tree develop fruit, you might have noticed a conspicuous lack of flowers. While it might seem like figs bear fruit without blossoming, that’s not quite the case. In fact, figs create a cluster of flowers, you just might never see it.
It’s a common misconception that figs bear fruit without blossoming. They can actually produce 500 to 7,000 flowers, but you won’t ever see them. That’s because figs are technically inverted flowers. Unlike apple or peach trees, fig flowers bloom inside hollow pods known as syconium. Each of these flowers produces a single, one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit called an achene. Since there can be thousands of flowers, you’re actually eating multiple fruits when eating a fig!
Wherever the flowers are located are where the seeds develop and eventually, the syconium develops into the fleshy false fruit that millions of people around the world know and love. The actual formation of the syconium begins with the initial growth of modified leaves known as bracts. These curve to form the outer pod and will eventually meet to form the mostly closed syconium. In many figs, there’s a small opening called the ostiole that forms by the interlocking of the bracts.
Fig Fruit and Reproduction
Since the flowers bloom internally, the fig tree can’t depend on wind or bees for pollination. Instead, many rely on small fig wasps to pollinate the flowers. In turn, fig wasps have a place where they can safely lay their eggs. This mutualistic relationship has been traced back as far as 34 million years ago, and the two creatures have co-evolved to the point where there is a unique species of fig wasps for each of the 8,000 or so species of fig that require pollination.
How does it work? A female fig wasp will make her way inside a male fig flower once she is ready to lay her eggs via the ostiole. Once she gives birth, she dies, and the eggs gestate inside the flower. Once mature, the male wasps will mate with the female wasps. While the male wasps don’t have wings, they do have teeth that they use to chew through the special fig pollen holders, which they drop down to the female. Eventually, the males will chew holes in the skin of the fig, and then die once their work is done.
The females, now covered in pollen, search for another male fig flower to deposit her eggs. In the process, some of the female wasps land in female figs (the ones we eat). Although the female figs don’t have the special egg receptacles for the wasps to lay their eggs, she does successfully pollinate the flower, which then ripens into the fig you see at stores. Sadly, it’s a one-way trip for the female fig wasps, and she dies inside. The plant then releases an enzyme called ficin that breaks down the wasp into protein.
If the thought of potentially eating tiny wasps makes you go “ewww,” the good news is that there are many varieties that self-pollinate. In fact, if you live in the United States you’ll be happy to know that 95% of the figs produced and sold commercially in California are self-pollinating. Considering that the state produces 100% of the nation’s dried figs and 98% of its fresh figs, you might not have to worry too much about having an extra-crunchy fig.
If you plan to grow your own fig tree, look for ones that are self-pollinating as there might not be any fig wasps in your area. Even if you do plant self-pollinating trees, you can still increase your yield by gently tapping or using an electric toothbrush on the fig pods when they grow to encourage pollination.
Final Thoughts
The humble fig might seem like a “boring” plant. After all, it doesn’t bloom! However, the more you learn about it, the more interesting it becomes. So the next time someone argues with you that figs don’t bloom, let them know that they actually do, they’re just inside the “fruit.” While you’re at it, let them know that when they eat a fig, they’re actually eating a flower!
What Plants Glow?
What Plants Glow?
Certain fungi and fireflies are naturally bioluminescent, and other plants are being modified by researchers to glow in the dark. Bioluminescent organisms produce and emit light through biological processes. The mechanism that produces the glow is due to an enzymatic chemical reaction.
Bioluminescent organisms produce and emit light through an enzymatic reaction. There are many organisms that are naturally bioluminescent, including fireflies and a variety of aquatic creatures. Certain fungi are also bioluminescent, although there is some disagreement as to whether fungi qualify as plants. Aside from fungi, there are no plants that can produce light naturally. However, researchers have recently found ways to create glowing plants through genetic engineering and plant nanobiotics.
Naturally bioluminescent fungi include more than 80 different species. Among the brightest bioluminescent fungi are strains of Panellus stipticus (bitter oyster), which grow in the eastern part of North America, but various species of glowing fungus are widely distributed throughout the world.
The mechanism that creates the greenish glow in fungus starts with the enzyme luciferase, which interacts with oxidized luciferin (a small-molecule substrate) to create oxyluciferin. The chemical reaction that occurs in this process also releases energy in the form of light. This is the same process that allows bioluminescent sea creatures and fireflies to light up. All known bioluminescent fungi light up at wavelengths from 520-530 nanometers, meaning they all have a consistent green color.
An Evolutionary Edge
The evolutionary advantage that led certain fungus species to develop glow-in-the-dark capability is not clear, but there are several theories. One popular idea is that the glowing light attracts insects to the mushrooms, which then help to disperse their spores. An opposing theory is that the glow actually discourages grazing animals from feeding on the mushrooms.
Scientists have an interest in using glowing plants to benefit humans in the future and for the clues they can provide about how the plants function. Bioluminescence has always been of great interest to people, as you can see from the crowds that flock to beaches lit up with glowing plankton and the fascination children have with fireflies. But scientists have other reasons to pay close attention to the ways that different organisms can glow in the dark.
Creating Light with Plants
Artificial lighting allows us to extend our working and leisure hours, but lighting also consumes about 20% of all energy usage currently. Glowing plants could replace some light sources, both indoors and outdoors, without using any resources. In fact, plants produce their own energy and are self-healing, making them a much more sustainable resource than other light sources.
The first efforts to create bioluminescent plants were carried out in the 1980s. Early attempts to create glowing plants relied on genetic engineering to create tobacco plants that could produce luciferase, the enzyme that acts on luciferin that causes light to be produced through oxidation. These efforts used the chemicals from fireflies to allow the plants to emit light. However, genetically engineering plants is a difficult process, and the results in this case were technically successful but the plants only produced a dim light.
Since then, researchers have continued to develop techniques to make their bioluminescent plants glow longer and brighter, while being less difficult to produce. They are now using nanoparticles, containing luciferase embedded inside plant leaves, to allow the plant to produce light. Newer glow-in-the-dark plants are 10 times brighter than earlier experimental plants, and are also able to maintain their bioluminescence throughout the plants’ lifespans.
While researchers have not yet developed a glowing houseplant that is bright enough to replace artificial lighting in our homes or on the street, they are getting closer to reaching that goal with each new development.
Can a Plant Move?
Can a Plant Move?
All plants move. Most plants move toward the best access to the resources they require. Some plants move slowly and subtly over time, but a few move fast enough to be seen.
All plants can move even though they can’t walk like animals. Plants may seem like they stay in one place from the time they are planted, but this isn’t true. You would be amazed how much plants actually can move. Every plant that grows from seed will move, even if only in subtle ways. There are also specific species of plants that move in a much more obvious way.
How Plants Can Move
As plants grow, they inevitably move. Even the plants you think have always been in the same spot have moved. Like any plant that grows from a seed, it always moves up and out as it grows. Most plants will also tend to grow in a way that they will have the best chance for survival. Just like animals and people move to areas with the most food and water, so do plants.
The plant growth hormone auxin is why plants grow toward the light. This hormone will spread out evenly throughout a plant growing in direct sunlight. When part of a plant is growing in the shade, the auxin will be used on the shady side to bend the plant toward the sunlight. The auxin will break down in the leaves on the sunny side to allow more hormone production to adjust the plant’s growth away from the shade.
All plants move, and they all do so for a reason. Plants grow in the direction of the best life for them. However, some plants have ways to move even quicker than plants do through the process of phototropism.
Types of Plants That Move the Most
A few types of plants move in a much more obvious and observable way. These three plants have evolved to use their movements for different reasons but ultimately for their most beneficial way of life.
Venus Flytrap
The Venus Flytrap has evolved to be a species of carnivorous plant which can move in a fast way that can be seen. Venus Flytraps catch their live food for nutrients in a trap that closes around their prey when landed on. These plants can move very fast and shut their traps in under one-tenth of a second. This is one of the fastest-moving plants you can find.
Prayer Plant
The prayer plant is scientifically called Maranta leuconeura, which moves through a process known as nyctinasty, also known as nighttime folding. The prayer plant gets its intriguing name from the way its leaves will fold at night in a way that resembles praying hands. The prayer plant moves twice a day, once to fold its leaves at night and once to unfold them in the morning.
The Sensitive Plant
The sensitive plant, also called mimosa pudica, is known for its swift movement. This plant is capable of thigmonasty, which is movement induced by touch. This plant is a sensitive plant because the leaves react to being touched, shaken, or even heated or cooled rapidly. The leaves close in a ripple effect from outside stimulation.
Why and How to Collect Rainwater for Houseplants
Why and How to Collect Rainwater for Houseplants
When it comes to healthy plants, nothing beats the effects of rainwater. Keep your indoor potted varieties looking their best with regular doses of rainwater. Here’s how to get started.
Nothing beats what nature can provide in terms of growing healthy plants. Even houseplants will benefit from exposure to natural sunshine and humidity. But, if you want to make a real difference for your plants, it’s time to treat them with spring rainwater.
Here, we’ll look at the benefits of rainwater for plants and the ways you can harvest some most efficiently.
6 Benefits of Rainwater
While you might assume that filtered tap water offers the purest form of hydration, it turns out rainwater has the advantage. Below are six known benefits of using it on plants.
1. Less Chemical Toxicity
Tap water may seem pure, but most contains a cocktail of chemicals that is less than ideal for houseplants. For example, your water likely includes chlorine as a disinfectant and fluoride to help prevent cavities. Unfortunately for houseplants, these elements won’t offer them any benefits.
Most are susceptible to chlorine toxicity, which can result in burnt leaf margins. Others, including dracaenas and spider plants, are sensitive to fluoride toxicity and experience symptoms like burnt, discolored, and spotted leaves. Your tap water may also contain water softeners or a high concentration of sodium, which further stresses houseplants.
Rainwater doesn’t contain these compounds, meaning that it’s less likely to stress your plants over time.
2. Higher Oxygen Content
Ounce for ounce, rainwater contains more oxygen than tap water. That’s a benefit for houseplants, as it improves the respiration process and enhances nutrient absorption. The long-term result is healthier plant roots and more vigorous growth.
3. 100% Soft Water
Unlike tap water, rainwater is always soft, meaning that it’s free of salts, treatment chemicals, and unwanted pharmaceuticals that make it into the municipal water supply. A regular infusion of rainwater can flush away toxins that build up in potting soil to keep it refreshed for better growth.
4. Naturally Acidic
Rainwater tends to be slightly acidic, which provides a welcome balance to water from the tap. Many cities treat their water to make it alkaline so as not to corrode metal pipes, which can make potting soil unbalanced over time. Adding rainwater to your plant care routine works to rebalance the soil pH for better growth in the long run.
5. Organic Material Might be Present
Depending on how you collect rainwater, there’s a good chance it contains traces of organic material. This might include leaf debris, pollen, bird droppings, and other materials teaming with microbial life. Use it to water your plants, and they will benefit from a light application of fertilizer in the process.
6. High Concentration of Nitrates
Rainwater is flush with nitrates, which is one of the critical macro-nutrients responsible for plant growth. Without adequate nitrogen, plants struggle to develop lush foliage and produce new leaves. That’s the reason why your grass often appears greener immediately after a good rainstorm.
Houseplants aren’t exempt from these nutrient needs. Give them regular drinks of rainwater, and you’ll see impressive growth because of it.
How to Collect Rainwater for Houseplants
Understanding the value of rainwater for your indoor plants and ensuring that there is always some accessible are two separate matters. Without the right rainwater collection system, you will likely only have small amounts available at a time, or the water you do collect might start growing more microbial life than you want.
Here are three strategies for water collection to ensure you do things right:
1. Set out a bucket before a rainstorm: By far the simplest way to collect rainwater is to set out a collection bucket before it falls. You can even add a rain gauge to track precipitation levels. After the storm, bring the rainwater indoors and disperse it between your pots.
2. Set up a rain barrel: Make water collection easier on yourself by doing it automatically with a rain barrel. Most connect directly to your home’s gutters so that the water flows directly into a covered barrel. It may have a spigot near the bottom so you can access water when you want it, or you may need to lift the top off to dip in a watering can.
Note: It’s essential to set up a screen on top of the rain barrel to ensure you don’t create a breeding ground for mosquitoes and other insect larvae.
3. Collect Snow and Ice: When you’re experiencing winter weather, it’s possible to harvest snow and ice to use indoors for your houseplants. This frozen precipitation offers the same benefits as rain, and it’s easier to collect. Make the process easy on yourself by scooping some in a bucket and pouring it on your plants after it melts.
Note: Make sure the water reaches room temperature before you use it to prevent shocking the plants.
Storing Rainwater for Plants
Rainwater is filled with organic material, which means it can start to grow algae and otherwise become contaminated within one week. You can extend its life by keeping it out of light and away from insects. This might mean a dark cupboard or backyard shed. Painting outdoor rain barrels block light from coming in the tanks and will slow down algae growth within them.
It’s also wise to thoroughly clean rain containment buckets between batches to minimize the risk of microbial contamination between them.
Some people prefer to treat rainwater with chlorine tablets to kill off microbial life. However, chlorine can harm plants, so make sure you wait at least 24 hours after treatment before using it for watering.
Collect Rainwater for the Benefit of Indoor Plants
Collecting and using rainwater for indoor plants is far more involved than merely turning on the tap. However, your extra effort will be rewarded with healthier, lusher plants and more vigorous growth. Take the time to give your houseplants a taste of the outdoor elements, and the results will be hard to surpass.